Valentines Day : How Halaal is it ?

What does celebrating "Valentines Day" really mean?

Where does this fit in a Muslims life?

In fact, does it even fit in it at all?

Looking at the Quraan and Sunnah, one should realize that we should not be celebrating it in the first place, because it is a celebration of the non-Muslims. Whatever we need to celebrate has been prescribed to us by Allaah and His Messenger (Sal Allaahu Alaiyhi wa sallam) and it is prohibited to celebrate anything else.

That is why And Allaah said:
"For every nation We have ordained religious ceremonies which they must follow." [Surah al-Hajj:67]


And the Prophet (Sal Allaahu Alaiyhi wa sallam) said: "Every nation has its own Eid (celebration) and this is our Eid (meaning Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha). ’ (al-Bukhaari, Muslim)


Let us see what some of these differences are:


1. Allaah commands us to lower our gaze and not look at the opposite gender.


“Tell the believing men to lower their gaze and protect their private parts....And tell the believing women to lower their gaze, and protect their private parts...” Surah al-Noor :30-31)


But Valentines Day encourages people to deliberately look and stare and seek out the one that you find attractive and pick him/her as your valentine.
2. Allaah orders the Muslim women not to talk unnecessarily or in a soft manner to strange men.

“....then be not soft in speech, lest he in whose heart is a disease (of hypocrisy, or evil desire for adultery) should be moved with desire” (Surah al-Ahzaab :32)


Even for the Sahaabah, Allaah ordered them to screen themselves from the wives of the Prophet (Sal Allaahu Alaiyhi wa sallam) when they need to ask them something. Who could be purer than the wives of the Prophet (Sal Allaahu Alaiyhi wa sallam) and who could be higher in taqwa than the Sahaabah?
"And when you ask (the Prophets wives) for anything you want, ask them from behind a screen, that is purer for your hearts and for their hearts".
(Surah al-Ahzaab: 53)

Yet, for Valentines Day, you see young men and women who are absolutely not mahram for one another in any way whatsoever, going way beyond this prohibition. Not only are they talking to each other in a soft and flirtatious way, but they are right out expressing their love (in reality, lust) for each other.


3. The Sunnah prohibits a man and a woman from being alone together at any time.

The Prophet (Sal Allaahu Alaiyhi wa sallam) said:
“Whoever believes in Allaah and the Last Day, let him not be alone with a woman who has no mahram present, for the third one present will be the Shaytaan.” (Ahmad -- saheeh by al-Albaani)


But those who celebrate Valentines Day purposely seek to be alone with each other and go out on dates with each other while Allaah says:

“And come not near to unlawful sex. Verily, it is a Faahishah (i.e. anything that transgresses its limits: a great sin, and an evil way that leads one to hell unless Allaah Forgives him)” (al-Isra’ :32)


4. Islaam prohibits a man to even touch a non-mahram woman.

The Prophet (Sal Allaahu Alaiyhi wa sallam) said:
“If one of you were to be stabbed in the head with an iron needle, that would be better for him than his touching a woman who is not permissible for him.” (al-Tabaraani --saheeh by al-Albaani)


But Valentines Day promotes more than just touching. It promotes hugging, kissing, cuddling and much more. May Allaah protect us.


5. Islaam teaches us that real love between a man and a woman, that is acceptable and allowed by Allaah is only that between a husband and his wife.


"And of His signs is that He created for you wives from among yourselves, that you might reside with them, and has put love and mercy between you. Surely, there are signs in this for those who think".
(al-Room: 21)

But Valentines Day endorses haraam relationships between a non-mahram man and woman and encourages illicit love and un-Islaamic affiliations.


6. Islaam tells us that Hayaa (modesty) and bashfulness are a jewel to be treasured.

It is a purity and innocence that is a virtue, regardless for a man or a woman.

The Prophet (Sal Allaahu Alaiyhi wa sallam) said:
“Hayaa (modesty) is a branch of faith.” (Bukhaari)

On the other hand, this Valentines day advocates nothing but shamelessness and immodesty. Young men and women who have no hayaa for Allaah, leave alone for each other, openly and shamelessly, ask each other to be their love or be their valentine. Subhaan Allaah!

Conclusion

We, as Muslims, should not be celebrating Valentines day, nor is it allowed for us to do so. Everything that this day revolves around and is associated with is totally against the pure and pristine teachings of Allaah and His Messenger (Sal Allaahu Alaiyhi wa sallam).

Even if this celebration is between a husband and wife, it is not right to do so because it is a celebration of the non-Muslims. And of course, if it is an illicit relationship, then obviously it is haraam.

May Allah guide us and enable us to be true Muslims who submit earnestly and sincerely to Allaah and His Orders.
Ameen.

"O you who believe! Fear Allaah and keep your duty to Him. And let every person look to what he has sent forth for tomorrow, and fear Allaah. Verily, Allaah is All-Aware of what you do."
(Surah al-Hashr:18)

The History of Valentine's Day

The history of Valentine's Day — and its patron saint — is shrouded in mystery. But we do know that February has long been a month of romance. St. Valentine's Day, as we know it today, contains vestiges of both Christian and ancient Roman tradition. So, who was Saint Valentine and how did he become associated with this ancient rite? Today, the Catholic Church recognizes at least three different saints named Valentine or Valentinus, all of whom were martyred.

One legend contends that Valentine was a priest who served during the third century in Rome. When Emperor Claudius II decided that single men made better soldiers than those with wives and families, he outlawed marriage for young men — his crop of potential soldiers. Valentine, realizing the injustice of the decree, defied Claudius and continued to perform marriages for young lovers in secret. When Valentine's actions were discovered, Claudius ordered that he be put to death.

Other stories suggest that Valentine may have been killed for attempting to help Christians escape harsh Roman prisons where they were often beaten and tortured.

According to one legend, Valentine actually sent the first "valentine" greeting himself. While in prison, it is believed that Valentine fell in love with a young girl — who may have been his jailor's daughter — who visited him during his confinement. Before his death, it is alleged that he wrote her a letter, which he signed "From your Valentine," an expression that is still in use today. Although the truth behind the Valentine legends is murky, the stories certainly emphasize his appeal as a sympathetic, heroic, and, most importantly, romantic figure. It's no surprise that by the Middle Ages, Valentine was one of the most popular saints in England and France.

While some believe that Valentine's Day is celebrated in the middle of February to commemorate the anniversary of Valentine's death or burial — which probably occurred around 270 A.D — others claim that the Christian church may have decided to celebrate Valentine's feast day in the middle of February in an effort to "christianize" celebrations of the pagan Lupercalia festival. In ancient Rome, February was the official beginning of spring and was considered a time for purification. Houses were ritually cleansed by sweeping them out and then sprinkling salt and a type of wheat called spelt throughout their interiors. Lupercalia, which began at the ides of February, February 15, was a fertility festival dedicated to Faunus, the Roman god of agriculture, as well as to the Roman founders Romulus and Remus.

To begin the festival, members of the Luperci, an order of Roman priests, would gather at the sacred cave where the infants Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome, were believed to have been cared for by a she-wolf or lupa. The priests would then sacrifice a goat, for fertility, and a dog, for purification.

The boys then sliced the goat's hide into strips, dipped them in the sacrificial blood and took to the streets, gently slapping both women and fields of crops with the goathide strips. Far from being fearful, Roman women welcomed being touched with the hides because it was believed the strips would make them more fertile in the coming year. Later in the day, according to legend, all the young women in the city would place their names in a big urn. The city's bachelors would then each choose a name out of the urn and become paired for the year with his chosen woman. These matches often ended in marriage. Pope Gelasius declared February 14 St. Valentine's Day around 498 A.D. The Roman "lottery" system for romantic pairing was deemed un-Christian and outlawed. Later, during the Middle Ages, it was commonly believed in France and England that February 14 was the beginning of birds' mating season, which added to the idea that the middle of February — Valentine's Day — should be a day for romance. The oldest known valentine still in existence today was a poem written by Charles, Duke of Orleans to his wife while he was imprisoned in the Tower of London following his capture at the Battle of Agincourt. The greeting, which was written in 1415, is part of the manuscript collection of the British Library in London, England. Several years later, it is believed that King Henry V hired a writer named John Lydgate to compose a valentine note to Catherine of Valois.

In Great Britain, Valentine's Day began to be popularly celebrated around the seventeenth century. By the middle of the eighteenth century, it was common for friends and lovers in all social classes to exchange small tokens of affection or handwritten notes. By the end of the century, printed cards began to replace written letters due to improvements in printing technology. Ready-made cards were an easy way for people to express their emotions in a time when direct expression of one's feelings was discouraged. Cheaper postage rates also contributed to an increase in the popularity of sending Valentine's Day greetings. Americans probably began exchanging hand-made valentines in the early 1700s. In the 1840s, Esther A. Howland began to sell the first mass-produced valentines in America.

According to the Greeting Card Association, an estimated one billion valentine cards are sent each year, making Valentine's Day the second largest card-sending holiday of the year. (An estimated 2.6 billion cards are sent for Christmas.)

Approximately 85 percent of all valentines are purchased by women. In addition to the United States, Valentine's Day is celebrated in Canada, Mexico, the United Kingdom, France, and Australia.

Valentine greetings were popular as far back as the Middle Ages (written Valentine's didn't begin to appear until after 1400), and the oldest known Valentine card is on display at the British Museum. The first commercial Valentine's Day greeting cards produced in the U.S. were created in the 1840s by Esther A. Howland. Howland, known as the Mother of the Valentine, made elaborate creations with real lace, ribbons and colorful pictures known as "scrap."

CRIMINAL RECORDS

 Spent records
Criminal records are not purged regardless of time or seriousness of the case . However, under the Rehabilitation of Offenders Ordinance (HK Laws. Chap 297), a criminal record is considered 'spent' if it was the first criminal offence, sentenced to less than 3 months in jail or fined less than $10,000 and a period of 3 years has elapsed since conviction and no new conviction is registered against the said person. Spent records are recorded as such with the exception to:

• Attempting to be licensed as a barrister, solicitor , accountant or insurance broker
• Applying to become a trustee or controller for Mandatory Provident Fund or a bank controller, executive or employee
• Disciplinary proceedings against any judicial officer, members of disciplined services, probation officer, employees of Hong Kong Monetary Authority, Mandatory Provident Fund Schemes Authority, Office of the Commissioner of Insurance (insurance officers) and Securities and Futures Commission (executive grade only)
• Disciplinary proceedings against government officials who are paid on any Directorate or Directorate (Judicial/Legal Group) Pay Scale and those above point 27 on the Master Pay Scale

All Hong Kong residents who plan to adopt children or travel/emigrate to another country can request for a Certificate of No Criminal Conviction - a document that is issued directly to the Consulate and/or government agencies and not to the requester.

 United Kingdom

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In the United Kingdom, criminal records are maintained by the Criminal Records Bureau (England and Wales), Disclosure Scotland (Scotland) and Access Northern Ireland (Northern Ireland), which have partial access to the Police National Computer (PNC). (It is important to stress that a PNC record is not the same thing as a criminal record.)
These records are not publicly accessible, and cannot be viewed without the subject's consent (though an employer may make such consent a condition of employment). Information supplied depends on the level of disclosure. Low-level disclosures give only unspent convictions (i.e. convictions which have not yet been expunged under the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act), while enhanced disclosures ideally include all convictions, cautions, reprimands and final warnings. An enhanced criminal record certificate may contain relevant information that need not relate solely to criminal matters.
Arrests which do not lead to an official finding of guilt (e.g. a conviction or the acceptance of a caution) are not considered part of a person's criminal record, and are not typically disclosed to the appropriate body. However, an enhanced disclosure may include such additional information, supplied at the Chief Police Officer's discretion. Enhanced disclosures are typically used to screen applicants for positions such as police officer and social worker which involve contact with vulnerable groups.

 United States

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In the United States, criminal records are compiled and updated on local, state, and federal levels by various law enforcement agencies. Their primary goal is to present a comprehensive criminal history. They may be used for many purposes mostly for background checks including identification, employment, security clearance, adoption, immigration/international travel/visa, licensing, assistance in developing suspects in an ongoing criminal investigation, and for enhanced sentencing in criminal prosecutions. In the United States, these compilations are unlikely to be admissible in court as proof of arrest or conviction. Criminal histories are maintained by law enforcement agencies in all levels of government. Local police departments, sheriffs’ offices, and specialty police agencies may maintain their own internal databases. On the state level, state police, troopers, highway patrol, correctional agencies, and other law enforcement agencies also maintain separate databases. Laws enforcement agencies often share this information with other similar enforcement agencies and this information is usually made available to the public. Registered sex offenders have information about their crimes or misdemeanors readily available, and Department of Correctional Services in many states disseminate criminal records to the public, through media such as the Internet.Usually, the only group in society that is not subject to dissemination of any criminal records is juveniles. Some adults can also be eligible for non-disclosure of their records through the process of Record sealing or Expungement. Some states have official "statewide repositories" that contain criminal history information contributed by the various county and municipal courts within the state. These state repositories are usually accurate so long as the state requires and supervises the uploading of data from the local courts. Some states make reporting to the repository voluntary. The information obtained from these repositories can be incomplete and the use of this information has associated risks. The federal government maintains extensive criminal histories and acts as a central repository for all agencies to report their own data. NCIC (National Crime Information Center) is one such database. Generally, and with a very few exceptions, the records compiled by the federal government are not made available to the private sector. Some private re-sellers claim to offer an NCIC record search. In most cases these claims are fraudulent. Though NCIC records may not be available to private sector companies, they still may hold very accurate criminal records bought from other reporting agencies.

Federal records

Department of Justice

National Crime Information Center

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) manages the official national criminal history database through the National Crime Information Center (NCIC). The NCIC stores information regarding open arrest warrants, arrests, stolen property, missing persons, and dispositions regarding felonies and misdemeanors. The FBI's compilation of an individual's criminal identification, arrest, conviction, and incarceration information is known as the Interstate Identification Index, or "Triple-I" for short. This is basically the FBI's rap sheet (Record of Arrest and Prosecution). It contains information voluntarily reported by law enforcement agencies across the country, as well as information provided by other federal agencies. It contains information on felonies and misdemeanors, and may also contain municipal and traffic offenses if reported by the individual agencies. Each individual who has an entry in the Interstate Identification Index has a unique "FBI number" that is used to identify a specific individual. It compensates for the fact that an individual may provide several false names, or aliases, to a law enforcement agency when he or she is booked. An individual may also lie about his or her date of birth or social security number as well, making an independent, unique identification key necessary. It is important to note that the information provided by the Interstate Information Index may come from the agency who "booked" the individual and not necessarily the agency who arrested the individual. Therefore, there may be discrepancies between the arrest date, location, and arresting agency listed in the database and the actual date, location, and agency who made the arrest. The Interstate Information Index may also contain incarceration information as well, listing each time an inmate is transferred from one correctional institution to another as a separate "arrest." The Interstate Information Index is only as accurate as the information reported to it by individual agencies, and frequently lacks comprehensive information on the dispositions of the various arrests it lists. It is best used as a guide on where to find more comprehensive information on the individual.

National Instant Criminal Background Check System

Mandated by the Brady Bill, the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) is used by the FBI to screen potential firearms buyers. Citizens who are currently ineligible to own a firearm under current laws may have the opportunity to have their firearms rights restored. Eligibility largely depends on state laws. In addition to searching the NCIC databases, NICS maintains its own index to search for additional disqualifiers from gun ownership. Private companies are not allowed access to this system for background checks.

Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System

The FBI maintains the largest biometric database in the world with the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS). Criminal submissions from arrests and civil submissions from authorized background checks are stored in IAFIS. Currently, IAFIS has more than 47 million submissions in its repository.

Combined DNA Index System

The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) stores DNA profiles for both convicted felons in the Offender Index as well as unidentified DNA found at crime scenes in the Forensic Index. CODIS was originally piloted in 1990 as a project among 14 states. Currently, all 50 states, Puerto Rico and the United States Government participate in CODIS.

Department of Transportation

National Driver Register

While not officially a criminal history repository, the National Driver Register (NDR), operated by the Department of Transportation, maintains information on drivers regarding suspended licenses. The NDR maintains a database of information posted by individual states as mandated by federal law. All drivers who have had their licenses suspended for any reason (including suspensions resulting from several successive minor traffic violations, i.e., Massachusetts suspends for three separate speeding tickets over a six month period) have that information posted by state Registry of Motor Vehicles offices to the NDR . Also, the NDR records information concerning convictions of driving under the influence of alcohol or controlled substances, failing to render aid at an accident involving death or injury, and knowingly making a false affidavit or committing perjury to officials about an activity governed by a law or regulation on the operation of a motor vehicle. Additionally, the NDR contains information on traffic violations resulting from a fatal automobile collision, reckless driving, or racing on the highways. Under federal law, states are required to obtain information collected and stored by the NDR to review records of licensees identified as possible "matches." If a match is obtained, often states will take action to call the match to a hearing to prove that they are not "the same person," placing the burden of proof on the suspected "match" to prove the distinction. Increasingly, state licensees find themselves caught in a Catch-22 situation where the transmission of information causes them to fail to be alerted to the fact that their drivers record has been combined with that of another driver, often to their unique disadvantage. This has led to a growing number of false arrests, citations, and actions being taken by officers against drivers who are, in the end, victims of mistaken identity.

Secure Flight

Secure Flight, operated by the Transportation Security Administration, screens United States airline passengers to see if they are on terrorism watch lists. Unlike the predecessors Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (CAPPS) & CAPPS II, Secure Flight does not scan passengers for outstanding warrants nor does Secure Flight use computer algorithms to search for links to flagged terrorists.

Obtaining copies of Federal criminal records

It is possible to obtain copies of criminal records maintained by Federal agencies under the Freedom of Information Act and the Privacy Act. In general, you may only obtain records concerning yourself, deceased individuals, or living individuals who have given you their permission to obtain their records.

Interstate records

Most states have a statewide agency who acts as a clearinghouse for all statewide arrest information. These so-called "state rap sheets" are usually much more detailed than the Interstate Identification Index; usually listing not only the arrest information, but the subsequent court action following that arrest.

National Law Enforcement Telecommunications System

The National Law Enforcement Telecommunications System (NLETS) is an interface to search each state's criminal and driver records as well as the License Plate Reader (LPR) records going back one year maintained by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). Thus through NLETS, a law enforcement agency in one state could search for someone's criminal and driver records in another state. NLETS potentially serves as a better tool to search for minor misdemeanors and traffic violations that would not be in the NCIC.

Expungement of criminal records

In the United States, criminal records may be expunged, though laws vary by state. Many types of offenses may be expunged, ranging from parking fines to felonies. In general, once sealed or expunged, all records of an arrest and/or subsequent court case are removed from the public record, and the individual may legally deny or fail to acknowledge ever having been arrested for or charged with any crime which has been expunged. However, when applying for a state professional license or job that is considered a public office or high security (e.g. security guard, law enforcement, or related to national security), you must confess that you have an expunged conviction or else be denied clearance by the DOJ. There is no post-conviction relief available in the Federal system, other than a Presidential Pardon. 

FUNNY HISTORY JOKES

Will and Guy's Humour In History

Will and Guy are convinced that humour, laughter and jokes have been with us since the beginning of human life on earth, and we would like to share some jokes with you that have an historical background.

 Funny Historical Facts, Jokes, Trivia and Fun

Aristotle felt that laughter was a distinctive trait of humanity and one that distinguished humans from the animals.

Did you know that the eighth Duke of Devonshire, known to his friends as "Harty Tarty", was told off by Queen Victoria for picking his nose at dinner. A poor shot, he once killed a pheasant and his gun-dog and wounded two bystanders [one of whom was his chef] with a single cartridge.

Baldulf, the medieval soothsayer, prophesied to the king that his favourite mistress would soon die. Sure enough, the woman died a short time later. The king was outraged at the soothsayer, certain that his prophecy had brought about the woman's death. He summoned Baldulf and commanded him, 'Tell me when you will die!'

Baldulf realized that the king was planning to execute him straightaway, no matter what answer he gave. 'I do not know when I will die,' he cleverly answered finally. 'I only know that whenever I do die, you will die two days later.'

Our Top Ten Hilarious, Funny, Witty and Short Jokes from History

The Philgelos or "Laughter-lover" is probably the oldest compilation of jokes in existence; it contains some 265 jokes. It is said that the famous Monty Python Parrot sketch has its origins in a joke told in the Philogelos.

1. Why were the early days of history called the dark ages?  Because there were so many knights.
2. It appears that shortest war on record was between Zanzibar and Britain in 1896.  Zanzibar [now part of Tanzania] surrendered after 38 minutes.
3. What kind of lighting did Noah use for the ark?  Floodlights and Ark lights
4. Which English King invented the fireplace?  Alfred the Grate.
5. How was the Roman Empire cut in half?  With a pair of Caesars.
6. I'm desperately trying to establish why kamikaze pilots wore helmets.
7. Last words from a general in the American Civil War, 'Nonsense.
   They couldn't hit an elephant at this dist……………'
8. Asked by the court barber how he wanted his hair cut, the king replied, 'In silence.' [From the Philogelos]
9. What's the difference between Joan of Arc and a canoe?  One is Maid of Orleans and the other is made of wood. [The Victorians enjoyed jokes like this one]
10. Wishing to teach his donkey not to eat, a pedant did not offer him any food. When the donkey died of hunger, he said, 'I've had a great loss. Just when he had learned not to eat, he died.' - Dated to the *Philogelos 4th Century CE]

FUNNY HISTORY OF THE WORLD

One of the fringe benefits of being an English or History teacher is receiving the occasional jewel of a student blooper in an essay. I have pasted together the following "history" of the world form certifiably genuine student bloopers collected by teachers throughout the United States, from eighth grade through college level. Read carefully, and you will learn a lot.

• The inhabitants of Egypt were called mummies. They lived in the Sarah Dessert and traveled by Camelot. The climate of the Sarah is such that the inhabitants have to live elsewhere, so certain areas of the dessert are cultivated by irritation. The Egyptians built the Pyramids in the shape of huge triangular cube. The Pyramids are a range of mountains between France and Spain.
• The Bible is full of interesting caricatures. In the first book of the Bible, Guinesses, Adam and Eve were created from an apple tree. One of their children, Cain, asked "Am I my brother's son?" God asked Abraham to sacrifice Issac on Mount Montezuma. Jacob, son of Issac, stole his brother's birthmark. Jacob was a partiarch who brought up his twelve sons to be partiarch, but they did not take to it. One of Jacob's sons, Joseph, gave refuse to the Israelites.
• Pharao forced the Hebrew slaves to make bread without straw. Moses led them to the Red Sea, where they made unleavened bread, which is bread made without any ingredients. Afterwards, Moses went up on Mount Cyanide to get the ten commandments. David was a Hebrew king skilled at playing the liar. He fought with the Philatelists, a race of people who lived in Biblical times. Solomon, one of David's sons, had 500 wives and 500 porcupines.
• Without the Greeks, we wouldn't have history. The Greeks invented three kinds of columns - Corinthian, Doric and Ironic. They also had myths. A myth is a female moth. One myth says that the mother of Achilles dipped him in the River Stynx until he became intolerable. Achilles appears in "The Illiad", by Homer. Homer also wrote the "Oddity", in which Penelope was the last hardship that Ulysses endured on his journey. Acutally, Homer was not written by Homer but by another man of that name.
• Socrates was a famous Greek teacher who went around giving people advice. They killed him. Socrates died from an overdose of wedlock.

AMERICA ATTACK 9/11

An American Airlines Boeing 767 (Flight 11) left Boston’s Logan Airport at 7:59 EDT heading for Los Angeles. Mohamed Atta (who had flown to Boston from Portland, Maineearly on 9/11 and whose suitcase, containing a video on flying airplanes, a fuel consumption calculator and a copy of the Koran was later found [this draft government report is in PDF format] at Logan Airport) was on board. So were four other hijackers.

When Atta and his compatriots took control of Flight 11, they diverted the plane south toward New York City. It struck the North Tower between the 95th and 103rd floors at 8:46:40 EDT. (The video links in this paragraph depict what Jules Naudet filmed [move the cursor ahead, to 21:04, to see his interview with Charlie Rose] as the first attack took place.) All 92 people onboard died, including nine flight attendants and both pilots.
Air traffic controllers could hear part of the conversation in the cockpit after the hijackers took control of the plane. (A quick-thinking member of the flight crew had managed to activate that system.) At 8:28 EDT, one of the attackers said:

Don’t do anything foolish. You are not going to get hurt. We have more planes. We have other planes.

One of those “other planes” was already on its suicide-murder mission.

 he idea of a center for world trade, to be located at the tip of Manhattan Island, began to seriously take shape when John F. Kennedy was America’s president. It was a time of dreams: to put a man on the moon; to achieve lasting world peace; to create a central place where worldwide commerce could be conducted.

Minoru Yamasaki, a Japanese-American with humble beginnings whose architectural firm was in metropolitan Detroit, created the center's design. Leslie Robertson was its chief structural engineer.

To support such a massive structure, one-quarter mile high, engineers had to dig to bedrock - 70 feet below the surface. Designers used innovative techniques (referred to as “a bathtub”) to keep the waters of the Hudson River out.

It took nearly ten years to complete the twin towers and the trade center complex. From the South Tower’s observation deck, one could look north to midtown Manhattan, east to the Brooklyn Bridge, and south to the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island.

Photographs from the U.S. national archives, and a movie produced by the Port Authorityof New York and New Jersey, document the birth of the twin towers - once the tallest structures in the world:

• When the towers were built, rotting pier timbers and debris floating on the Hudson River (from illegally dumped industrial waste) were clearly visible.
  
• In 1973, Manhattan had a new skyline from the East River perspective.
  
• People traveling to the city on the Staten Island Ferry in May of 1973 had anawesome view of the new twin towers.
  
• An old neighbor (the historic Trinity Church on Lower Broadway at the foot of Wall Street) welcomed a new one in the spring of 1973.

Both neighbors, and everything else in the surrounding area, were threatened on the morning of September 11 as two planes, flying at about 500 miles an hour, approached the World Trade Center.

merican Airlines Boeing 767 (Flight 11) left Boston’s Logan Airport at 7:59 EDT heading for Los Angeles. Mohamed Atta (who had flown to Boston from Portland, Maineearly on 9/11 and whose suitcase, containing a video on flying airplanes, a fuel consumption calculator and a copy of the Koran was later found [this draft government report is in PDF format] at Logan Airport) was on board. So were four other hijackers.
When Atta and his compatriots took control of Flight 11, they diverted the plane south toward New York City. It struck the North Tower between the 95th and 103rd floors at 8:46:40 EDT. (The video links in this paragraph depict what Jules Naudet filmed [move the cursor ahead, to 21:04, to see his interview with Charlie Rose] as the first attack took place.) All 92 people onboard died, including nine flight attendants and both pilots.
Air traffic controllers could hear part of the conversation in the cockpit after the hijackers took control of the plane. (A quick-thinking member of the flight crew had managed to activate that system.) At 8:28 EDT, one of the attackers said:

Don’t do anything foolish. You are not going to get hurt. We have more planes. We have other planes.

One of those “other planes” was already on its suicide-murder mission.

 can Airlines Flight 77, a Boeing 757, left Washington’s Dulles Airport at 08:20 EDT. Sixty-four people were going to Los Angeles, including four flight attendants and two pilots.

After the hijackers took control, they turned off the cockpit’s transponder which caused the plane to drop off radar. Air Force jets were scrambled but arrived too late.
Eyewitnesses on the ground saw the plane approach Washington from the southwest. When it was just outside the city, the plane made a 270-degree turn and headed straight for the Pentagon (headquarters of America's Department of Defense). It crashed into thebuilding, causing a five-story section to collapse.
Everyone on the plane, plus 190 people in the Pentagon, died. Reporters, trying their best to get on top of the story, initially had no idea it was a third hijacked plane which had caused the massive Pentagon fire.
Author and TV commentator Barbara Olson, wife of U.S. Solicitor General Theodore Olson, called her husband twice during the ordeal. She reported the hijackers were armed with knife-like weapons and asked her husband, "What should I tell the pilot to do?"
The pilot, of course, was no longer in control of the plane.




At 08:42 EDT, a Boeing 757 took off from Newark, New Jersey with 44 people onboard,including two pilots and five flight attendants. United Airlines Flight 93 was en route to San Francisco when hijackers, likely armed with knife-like instruments and a box they said was a bomb (as reported by Mark Bingham), took control of the plane.
Using his cell phone, passenger Jeremy Glick called his wife to say he and some other passengers had voted to tackle the hijackers. Thomas Burnett told his wife, "I know we’re all going to die...There’s three of us who are going to do something about it." And Todd Beamer, in his now-famous statement, said, "Let’s roll."
Flight 93's voice recordings help to reconstruct what happened. Forty-six minutes after takeoff, at 9:28 EDT, the hijackers attacked while the plane was at 35,000 feet above eastern Ohio. The aircraft "suddenly dropped 700 feet."
The 9-11 Commission Report notes (scroll down 30%) that Cleveland Center received a message from the flight crew:

Eleven seconds into the descent, the FAA's air traffic control center in Cleveland received the first of two radio transmissions from the aircraft. During the first broadcast, the captain or first officer could be heard declaring "Mayday" amid the sounds of a physical struggle in the cockpit. The second radio transmission, 35 seconds later, indicated that the fight was continuing. The captain or first officer could be heard shouting: "Hey get out of here-get out of here-get out of here."

At 9:32, one of the attackers spoke to the passengers:

"Ladies and Gentlemen: Here the captain, please sit down keep remaining sitting. We have a bomb on board. So, sit." The flight data recorder (also recovered) indicates that Jarrah [the hijacker flying the plane] then instructed the plane's autopilot to turn the aircraft around and head east.

The plane, investigators believe, was now on a path to Washington, D.C.

Using GTE airphones, passengers on board began calling friends, family, colleagues and other people on the ground. They learned of the successful attacks on the World Trade Center and advised they were going to fight back:

Five calls described the intent of passengers and surviving crew members to revolt against the hijackers. According to one call, they voted on whether to rush the terrorists in an attempt to retake the plane. They decided, and acted.

The passengers took action, beginning at 9:57:

Several passengers had terminated phone calls with loved ones in order to join the revolt. One of the callers ended her message as follows: "Everyone's running up to first class. I've got to go. Bye."

Recovered data from the plane reveals what happened next:

The cockpit voice recorder captured the sounds of the passenger assault muffled by the intervening cockpit door. Some family members who listened to the recording report that they can hear the voice of a loved one among the din. We cannot identify whose voices can be heard. But the assault was sustained.

Realizing passengers were fighting back, the hijacker flying the plane reacted:

In response, Jarrah immediately began to roll the airplane to the left and right, attempting to knock the passengers off balance. At 9:58:57, Jarrah told another hijacker in the cockpit to block the door. Jarrah continued to roll the airplane sharply left and right, but the assault continued. At 9:59:52, Jarrah changed tactics and pitched the nose of the airplane up and down to disrupt the assault. The recorder captured the sounds of loud thumps, crashes, shouts, and breaking glasses and plates. At 10:00:03, Jarrah stabilized the airplane.

Recognizing Flight 93's passengers had thwarted their original objective - of slamming into a Washington building - the attackers talked about crashing the plane:

Five seconds later, Jarrah asked, "Is that it? Shall we finish it off?" A hijacker responded, "No. Not yet. When they all come, we finish it off." The sounds of fighting continued outside the cockpit. Again, Jarrah pitched the nose of the aircraft up and down. At 10:00:26, a passenger in the background said, "In the cockpit. If we don't we'll die!" Sixteen seconds later, a passenger yelled, "Roll it!" Jarrah stopped the violent maneuvers at about 10:01:00 and said, "Allah is the greatest! Allah is the greatest!" He then asked another hijacker in the cock-pit, "Is that it? I mean, shall we put it down?" to which the other replied, "Yes, put it in it, and pull it down."

The heroes of Flight 93 were making significant progress:

The passengers continued their assault and at 10:02:23, a hijacker said, "Pull it down! Pull it down!" The hijackers remained at the controls but must have judged that the passengers were only seconds from overcoming them. The airplane headed down; the control wheel was turned hard to the right. The airplane rolled onto its back, and one of the hijackers began shouting "Allah is the greatest. Allah is the greatest." With the sounds of the passenger counterattack continuing, the aircraft plowed into an empty field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, at 580 miles per hour, about 20 minutes' flying time from Washington, D.C.

The actions of Flight 93's passengers averted another strike on a Washington, D.C. target - most likely the Capitol. Instead, at 10:03:11 EDT the plane crashed (leaving more than one debris field) in Shanksville, Pennsylvania - about 80 miles southeast of Pittsburgh.

Four planes, originally scheduled to depart American cities within 12 minutes of each other, had caused the worst attack on U.S. soil since the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor.  According to the official 9-11 Commission Report, the plot had beenmasterminded by Khalid Sheikh Mohammed.
The American intelligence "system was blinking red," but, apparently, few people had noticed.


As the passengers of Flight 93 wrested control of the plane from the hijackers, the South Tower of the World Trade Center was in its final moments of life.
Five minutes before Flight 93 crashed in Pennsylvania, the South Tower, (which was hit by the second plane) collapsed at 10:05 EDT. Hundreds of rescue workers, plus people trying to escape, were crushed to death.
Twenty-four minutes later, the North Tower also collapsed. A cloud of volcanic-like ashrushed through the streets of lower Manhattan as people fled for their lives. It was too late, however, for rescuers and people inside the building. They, like so many others in the South Tower, died on September 11.
Some people survived. They survived because of miracles or heroes. Heroes like Rick Rescorla who made sure nearly all of Morgan Stanley’s 2700 employees left the South Tower even while building announcements advised people to stay put.
Rescorla, then in charge of security at Morgan Stanley, was never one to follow advice he didn’t trust. He knew what danger was - he had faced it in Vietnam. Because of him, thousands of people were not victims - as he was - of the terrorist plot.
The WTC complex was damaged. At 5:20 p.m. EDT, Number 7 World Trade Center (a 47-story building) also collapsed. At the time, although it was not well-publicized, officialsfeared that the Hudson River could flood the entire area if the WTC foundations caved in.
But what, exactly, caused the towers to fall?
 September 11 was not the first time terrorists attacked the World Trade Center. On 26 February 1993, six people died, more than a thousand were injured and 50,000 trade center workers were evacuated when a bomb in excess of 1,000 pounds exploded on thesecond level of the parking basement. The home-made device had been driven into the building in a stolen Ryder truck. The explosion’s epicenter was under the northeast corner of the Vista Hotel. (The same hotel, on 9/11, was owned by Marriott.)
The attack plan in 1993, as authorities later learned, was to topple one tower so it fell on the other, spewing forth cyanide gas and killing tens of thousands of Americans. At the time, and later, few people realized the scope of what the terrorists had set in motion. It is now believed that September 11's events began to take shape soon after the 1993 bomb failed to produce the hoped-for catastrophic results. If true, the well-coordinated attack on the United States was eight years in the making.
Two years after the bombing, but before Ramzi Yousef was arrested for his role in the failed attempt to topple the twin towers, he and his fellow terrorists plotted another spectacular disaster. Using a liquid explosive designed to pass through airport security, the terrorists planned to blow up eleven commercial American aircraft in one day. That plot was foiled when Yousef started a fire in Manilla.
When he fled the scene of the fire, Yousef left his computer behind. It contained what authorities needed to arrest him. Soon after, he was apprehended in Pakistan and extradited to the United States. He, and five other conspirators, were tried and convicted for their role in the bombing. Each received a prison sentence of 240 years.
In its Winter 1995/1996 edition, The National Interest published an article (by Laurie Mylroie) about several highly debatable issues.  One of those issues was the possibility of future terrorist actions against the United States (and its interests).
The article’s main concern (that uncoordinated communication between U.S. law enforcement agencies “may have created a niche for terrorism within America’s borders”) raised a point still hotly debated today.


On 7 August 1998, Al-Qaeda terrorists bombed the U.S. Embassy Compounds in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The coordinated attacks took place about four minutes apart. At least 212 people died and thousands more were injured.
In Nairobi, many of the victims were working in nearby buildings when the bomb exploded at approximately 10:40 a.m. local time. The American Embassy, located in a congested part of town, was gutted as the blast ripped through each floor and pulverized nearby vehicles.
The FBI, in the largest overseas deployment of agents in FBI history, conducted more than 1,000 interviews. As a result of that massive investigation, 22 people were charged with bombing the embassies. In May of 2001, four individuals were convicted even as a primary defendant - Osama Bin Laden - remained a fugitive. Those convicted men weresentenced to life in prison in October of 2001.
In August of 1997, about one year before the embassy bombings, Kenyan police and FBI agents found a very disturbing letter on the computer hard drive of longtime Bin Laden aide, Wadih El Hage. (He was one of the four convicted for bombing the embassies.) Near its end (scroll down about 80%) the letter states:

As you know, the decision to declare war on America was taken...

Government officials understandably observe that they receive so many warnings it is frequently impossible for them to determine which are real. But on 12 October 2000, another terrorist attack killed more Americans - this time aboard the U.S. guided missile destroyer USS Cole (DDG 67).

Eleven months before the events of September 11, the USS Cole, an American guided missile destroyer, was on its way to Bahrain. It planned to make a port visit where the headquarters of America's Fifth Fleet is located.
Needing fuel on 12 October 2000, the Arleigh-Burke class destroyer made a scheduled refueling stop at the Port of Aden in Yemen. As it "was mooring to a harbor refueling island," a "small boat exploded alongside" the ship, causing a 40-by-40-foot holeamidship on the port side.
The Cole's crew immediately responded with significant damage control. Among other things, they wrapped and plugged the hull at the point where a propeller shaft had penetrated the destroyer's hull. U.S. Marines were sent in to set up special checkpointsaround the Port of Aden.
Seventeen sailors died and 39 were injured. Navy divers found some of the missing men in the destroyer's flooded compartments.
The U.S. Navy's pictures of the USS Cole - in its injured state and as it was transported back to America aboard the Norwegian heavy transport Blue Marlin - are on-line:

• A patrol boat, with sailors and marines on board, provided security before the Colewas towed to sea and hoisted on board the Blue Marlin;
• The two ships crossed the Atlantic (you need an MPG player for this video link) and, in December of 2000, returned to America. They arrived at Pier 4 of the Ingalls Shipyard in Pascagoula, Mississippi where the Cole was slated for repairs.

Early on it was clear the explosion had been a terrorist attack. Within a year, the finger ofresponsibility pointed directly at Osama Bin Laden whose Yemeni family had migrated to Saudi Arabia many years before.
 The United States, with the help of its allies, responded to the September 11 terrorist attack with military force. On 7 October 2001, American and British forces directed a "measured, broad and sustained attack" on suspected terrorist cells in then-Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. The so-called "war against terror" continues.

Every day one hears reports of military successes and failures. Where is bin Laden? Is he dead? Hiding somewhere? The broadcasts sound the same, one week seamlessly blending into the next. But the real story of America's response comes from her people. From the children. The teenagers. From the folks in the cities and in the heartlands. What is their response to these shattering events?
The U.S. Library of Congress has acquired many original works reflecting America's response to the attacks. Profiled here are creations from a broad spectrum of people - children and adults, amateurs and professional artists. All have generously given their productions to the national archives.

• The Twin Towers - "I Can't Take It!" - by Hannah Beach, third-grade student from Knoxville, TN
• The Twin Towers - "No, No" - by Meagan Yoakley, third-grade student from Knoxville, TN
• "It's OK" - Eddie Hamilton, third-grade student from Knoxville, TN
• "New Vocabulary as of September 12, 2001." - Liz Johnson
• "Flower Towers." - Jen Kim
• "We Interrupt This Regularly Scheduled Programming to Bring You Reality." - Ann Telnaes
• "How My Life Has Changed." - Hilary North
• "Nothing Feels Safe Anymore." - Daniel DiGia
• "Can't Stop Watching TV." - Marie Blanchard
• "WTC 010911 9:15 AM." - S. Torre
• "Engine Company 54 Lost 15 Men." - Thomas Lanigan-Schmidt
• "After the Screaming." - Marc Yankus
• "Fear, Fate and Faith." - Scip Barnhart
• "In Memory." - Brian Niemann

On the anniversary date of the September 11 attacks, the world remembers what happened on that day in 2001. One of the stories, donated to the Library of Congress, helps to put all those memories in perspective.

Letters From a Broken Apple, an illustrated story about New York on September 11, helps all of us remember our own thoughts and responses to the tragic events of that day:

• At the beginning of such a tragedy, no one really knows what to write.
• Maybe we start with the sirens.
• Or maybe we start with the rescuers.
• The only planes in the air are military - the F16s.
• What has happened? It is beyond belief.
• Friends and family frantically call each other: "Are you okay?"
• Two friends have not checked in. Are they okay?
• America shakes in her "collective skin."
• Heroes steer people clear of collapsing walls and throat-clogging ash.
• In fact, heroes are the first thing we notice.

What Americans take from the tragedy, among other things, is this: "We the People" will be "okay" because the people stand together. Because terrorists will never destroy America's national spirit.  And because ... as President Obama noted years later in his speech entitled "A New Beginning" ... America will reach out, to find common ground with the Muslim world, even as she will also "relentlessly confront violent extremists who pose a grave threat to our security."
 A "primary source" is the best place to get first-hand information. A person who experiences an event, and gives an account of it, is a source of primary information. Maps, photographs, drawings, videotapes, diaries, letters, manuscripts and other similar items can be primary sources.
Someone who interprets primary sources - like a scholar, for example - is creating a secondary source. (See Yale University's web site for a good understanding of the differences between primary and secondary sources.)
It is our policy to link to primary source material whenever possible. That is the reason most of our links are to worldwide national archives, museums, universities, military and government sites as well as other institutions like historical societies and libraries. It is our aim to provide a virtual trip to reliable places where primary sources are maintained. We frequently link to scholarly sources as well. All links serve as footnotes to our stories.
Where helpful, we link to scholarly narratives that explain the subject, or issue, in more detail. Scholarly-narrative links - when we use them - usually appear near the end of our stories, when the reader is more prepared to explore them.
Each recommended link, embedded in the story, takes you directly to the source of the footnoted information. If you would like to visit the main page of the linked site, or to further explore its content, eliminate everything in the URL after the ".edu, .gov, .org," etc., and then press "enter." That will take you to the main site where you can then search for whatever additional information you may need.
We have thoroughly researched appropriate links. Wherever possible, people who really know the subject matter have reviewed the stories for accuracy. Our main objective is to help our visitors find their way to some of the best on-line information regarding the profiled subjects - and to have fun at the same time. We hope you have enjoyed your visit.
In addition to the embedded links, we recommend that you explore the following web sites if you are seeking further information:

• The BBC has an incredible source of information regarding the attack.
• The Library of Congress has also assembled extensive materials about the events of September 11 and their aftermath.

 

10 Forgotten Facts About Historical Events

History is a funny sort of thing. As humans, we often take an extremely complex event and filter the information from that event that best captures the story in our minds. As a result of the limited nature of the human brain, often fascinating and/or critical information is lost. In this list, I wanted to capture some of the often overlooked and under-reported information surrounding major historical events. This list is in no way definitive and somewhat U.S.-centric. It would be great to see future lists that cover the topic in respect to other countries.

10

Man on the Moon

While the moon landing may be the single most remembered event in the history of mankind and President John Kennedy, as the man who championed and led this accomplishment, often forgotten is Kennedy’s true motive for the daunting task. In a conversation with James Webb, the director of NASA at the time, Kennedy was quoted as saying, “Everything we do ought to really be tied into getting on to the Moon ahead of the Russians [...] otherwise we shouldn’t be spending that kind of money, because I’m not interested in space [...] The only justification for [the cost] is because we hope to beat [the USSR] to demonstrate that instead of being behind by a couple of years, by God, we passed them.” Due to this passion to push the U.S. past the Soviets, Kennedy essentially diverted all of NASA’s funds to the moon landing, much to the dismay of Webb, who favored a broader approach of discovery and programs.

9

Mass suicide at Jonestown

Due to the powerful images conjured up while recalling the horrific incident in Jonestown that saw 900+ men, women and children die through suicide or murder, the world often only remembers the victims that were actually in the compound itself and forgets the victims that tried to flee with Congressman Leo Ryan, who was there to determine whether or not U.S. citizens were being held against their will. The day before the mass suicide, Ryan and other U.S. government officials landed in Guyana. During their visit, many of the cult members asked to leave with Ryan’s delegations. Arriving at the airport, the delegation was ambushed by the cult, one of who had embedded himself into the group asking to leave. The embedded cult member drew a gun on the plane and summarily shot the passengers. Additionally, the cult disbanded a small force and attacked the delegation from a tractor with a trailer. Congressman Ryan was one of those murdered, becoming the first and only U.S. Congressman killed in the line of duty in the history of the U.S.

8

Japan’s Emperor after Hiroshima

When U.S. history recalls Japan in WWII, it often only remembers the mushroom clouds that scarred Japan’s physical geography and overlooks the strong psychological moorings that were devastated after the surrender. Following the surrender of Japan, U.S. General MacCarthur forced Hirohito to issue the, “Humanity Declaration,” or the Ningen-sengen. In the declaration, the Emperor proclaimed that in fact and contrary to the Shinto religion, which the culture at the time was largely built upon, he was not a god. Interestingly however, the confession was given in an archaic, court form of Japanese allowing the Emperor to be deliberately vague. It is theorized that he substituted the much more common word, “arahitogami” or “living god”, with the much more unique word “akitsumikami,” meaning an, “incarnation of god.” Many scholars have noted that one could be a living god, without being an incarnation of god.

7

The terrorist attacks of 9/11

Again, because of the sensational images of the two, 110-story Twin Towers of the World Trade Center falling, many people forget the overall tremendous devastation that the acts truly resulted in. On 9/11, in addition to the Twin Towers- 7 World Trade Center (47-stories tall), 6 World Trade Center (8-stories tall), 3 World Trade Center and the St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church were all completely destroyed, the latter entirely buried by debris of Tower 2. Also, 5 World Trade Center (9-stories tall), 4 World Trade Center (9-stories tall), the Deutsche Bank Building (40-stories tall), and Manhattan Community College’s Filterman Hall (15-stories tall) were all damaged beyond repair and have been or are slated for demolition.

6

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

Immediately following the 2004 Tsunami, the world was so rocked with the staggering death toll of nearly 240,000 individuals that it is often forgotten that many of the more rural and traditional citizens were able to survive through an indigenous understanding of the signs of an incoming tsunami. For example, scientists in the area initially were convinced that the aboriginal population of the Andaman Islands would be significantly ravaged by the tsunami, however, all but one of the tribes in the islands (oddly enough, the one that had largely converted to Christianity and thus, a change of lifestyle,) suffered only minor casualties. When questioned, the tribesmen explained to the scientists that the land and ocean often fought over boundaries and when the earth shook they knew that the sea would soon enter the land until the two could realign their borders. Because of this, the villagers fled to the hills and suffered little or no casualties. Additionally of note is the story of Tilly Smith, a 10-year-old British student vacationing on Mikakhao Beach in Thailand. Tilly, had recently studied tsunamis in school and immediately recognized the frothing bubbles and receding ocean as a harbinger of a tsunami. Along with her parents, they warned the beach and it was entirely evacuated safely.

5

The Bobby Kennedy Assassination

While nearly everyone can name the place (The Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles) and perpetrator of the assassination (Sirhan Sirhan), few people recall the man who captured and disarmed the gunman. That man was Rosie Grier, an American Football sensation (Super Bowl Champion, 2 time pro-bowler, member of the Ram’s “Fearsome Foursome,” and 5 time All Pro defensive tackle.) On the night of the assassination, Grier was the bodyguard for Kennedy’s pregnant wife. Along with Rafer Johnson, an Olympic gold medal decathlete, Grier heard the shots and tackled Sirhan. Grier, then jammed his finger behind the trigger of the gun and broke Sirhan’s arm. Grier then fought off those that were literally ready to rip Sirhan apart. Later Grier, would explain that, “I would not allow more violence.” Additionally, Grier would later testify to Judge Lance Ito during the O.J. Simpson trial that he had been present when O.J. confessed to the crimes in prison. Judge Ito however, ruled that the testimony was inadmissible.

4

The Moscow Theatre Massacre

When the news broke that the Russian military had ended the standoff where 850 people were held hostage by a Chechen separatist group in Moscow, the focus of the news quickly turned to the dramatic rescue. Due to this, the heroism and sacrifice of Olga Romanova, is often overlooked. When Romanova, a 26 year-old perfume-shop clerk, heard of the crisis, she left the safety of her parent’s house and walked to the Theatre alone. Convinced that she could reason with the terrorists and at the very least convince them to free the women and children, Romanova somehow managed to bypass the intense security in the area and enter the theatre. She then confronted the rebels and pleaded for the immediate release of the hostages. The terrorists, suspecting that she was FSB, marched her into an adjoining room and executed her with a shot to the head.

3

Kent State Shootings

Due to the iconic photo of a student lying dead and another leaning over his body and weeping, the Kent State Massacre has largely been accepted as a single event that took place in Ohio and resulted in 4 students being killed by the U.S. National Guard. What is often forgotten about the event is the sheer size and scale of the overall national unrest at the time of the shootings. Immediately following the shooting and centered on the common sentiment of, “they can’t kill us all,” 900 college campuses were closed because of violent and non-violent protests. Also, 100,000 people descended on Washington D.C., smashing car windows, lighting fires, looting and barricading streets and freeways. The President of the United States was evacuated to Camp David and the 82nd Airborne was brought in to defend the white house. Additionally, Nixon organized a special commission to focus solely on campus unrest. Ray Price, Nixon’s chief speechwriter was quoted as saying, “that’s not student protest, that’s civil war.” Overall, 4,000,000 people took place in the protests. It was at the time, the only nation wide protest on college campuses.

2

Altamont Free Concert of 1969

When the Altamont Concert is remembered, it is often solely for the Hell’s Angels providing “security,” and the ensuing riot that left an 18-year old man dead. According to sources, the Rolling Stones had hired the Hell’s Angels to keep people off the stage and to escort the Stones through the site. According to some witnesses, the Angels were hired for $500.00 worth of beer. As the evening went on, the crowd and the Angels got increasingly agitated with one another. The crowd pressed to the stage and the Angels fought them back. In the ensuing melee, Meredith Hunter was killed and the death has ever since been remembered as an example of the Angel’s inherent lawlessness and violence. However, what is not often remembered is the actual event that spawned the killing. Meredith Hunter, high on methamphetamine was captured on camera approaching the stage and brandishing a pistol. In response to the imminent danger, an angel drew a knife and stabbed him. The act of violence was determined by a judge to be an act of justifiable homicide as the Angel had every reason to believe his life was in jeopardy.

1

The Boston Massacre

The Boston massacre was one of the most critical events that led the colonies of America to revolt against King George III. While it is well remembered in this fashion, the fates of the British soldiers that fired on the civilians are often forgotten. In fact, the Captain that was present and 8 of the soldiers were arrested and tried. What is interesting is that the defender of the soldiers was none other than, John Adams, founding father and future President of the United States. No lawyer in Boston would take the case and so the court pled with Adams to represent the men. Although, he was hesitant, he so believed that everyone deserved a fair trial that he finally relented. Adams successfully convinced the jury that 6 of the men were afraid for their life and therefore, had the right to defend themselves. Interestingly, two of the men were convicted of murder, however, Adams presented a loophole to the court whereby according to English law, if the men could read then they could claim to be clergy and thereby were not bound by secular law. Adams had the men read out-loud from the Bible and the charges were reduced to manslaughter for which they were punished by a branding on the thumb.